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What is genetic material transferred to an organism?

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This article is about the natural procedure. For artificial gene transfer, see Factor delivery.

Type of nonhereditary genetic alter involving swapping of DNA or RNA other than from parent to offspring

Tree of life showing vertical and horizontal cistron transfers

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) or lateral gene transfer (LGT)[1] [two] [3] is the motion of genetic fabric between unicellular and/or multicellular organisms other than by the ("vertical") manual of Dna from parent to offspring (reproduction).[4] HGT is an important factor in the evolution of many organisms.[five] [6]

Horizontal gene transfer is the primary mechanism for the spread of antibody resistance in bacteria,[v] [7] [8] [9] [10] and plays an of import office in the evolution of leaner that tin can degrade novel compounds such equally human-created pesticides[eleven] and in the evolution, maintenance, and manual of virulence.[12] It frequently involves temperate bacteriophages and plasmids.[xiii] [14] [15] Genes responsible for antibiotic resistance in ane species of bacteria tin can be transferred to another species of bacteria through various mechanisms of HGT such every bit transformation, transduction and conjugation, after arming the antibiotic resistant genes' recipient confronting antibiotics. The rapid spread of antibiotic resistance genes in this manner is becoming medically challenging to deal with. Ecological factors may likewise play a part in the HGT of antibiotic resistant genes.[xvi] It is also postulated that HGT promotes the maintenance of a universal life biochemistry and, later on, the universality of the genetic code.[17]

Most thinking in genetics has focused upon vertical transfer, but the importance of horizontal gene transfer among single-jail cell organisms is commencement to exist best-selling.[18] [19]

Factor delivery can exist seen as an artificial horizontal cistron transfer, and is a form of genetic engineering science.

History [edit]

Griffith'southward experiment, reported in 1928 past Frederick Griffith,[xx] was the first experiment suggesting that leaner are capable of transferring genetic information through a process known every bit transformation.[21] [22] Griffith'south findings were followed by research in the late 1930s and early 40s that isolated Deoxyribonucleic acid every bit the cloth that communicated this genetic information.

Horizontal genetic transfer was then described in Seattle in 1951, in a paper demonstrating that the transfer of a viral cistron into Corynebacterium diphtheriae created a virulent strain from a non-virulent strain,[23] also simultaneously solving the riddle of diphtheria (that patients could be infected with the bacteria but not have whatsoever symptoms, and and then suddenly catechumen later or never),[24] and giving the first example for the relevance of the lysogenic cycle.[25] Inter-bacterial cistron transfer was starting time described in Japan in a 1959 publication that demonstrated the transfer of antibody resistance betwixt different species of bacteria.[26] [27] In the mid-1980s, Syvanen[28] predicted that lateral gene transfer existed, had biological significance, and was involved in shaping evolutionary history from the start of life on World.

As Jian, Rivera and Lake (1999) put it: "Increasingly, studies of genes and genomes are indicating that considerable horizontal transfer has occurred betwixt prokaryotes"[29] (encounter also Lake and Rivera, 2007).[30] The phenomenon appears to have had some significance for unicellular eukaryotes as well. As Bapteste et al. (2005) observe, "additional evidence suggests that factor transfer might besides be an important evolutionary machinery in protist evolution."[31]

Grafting of 1 plant to some other tin can transfer chloroplasts (organelles in found cells that conduct photosynthesis), mitochondrial DNA, and the unabridged jail cell nucleus containing the genome to potentially make a new species.[32] Some Lepidoptera (e.g. monarch butterflies and silkworms) have been genetically modified by horizontal gene transfer from the wasp bracovirus.[33] Bites from insects in the family Reduviidae (assassin bugs) tin can, via a parasite, infect humans with the trypanosomal Chagas affliction, which can insert its Dna into the human genome.[34] It has been suggested that lateral factor transfer to humans from bacteria may play a role in cancer.[35]

Aaron Richardson and Jeffrey D. Palmer land: "Horizontal cistron transfer (HGT) has played a major role in bacterial evolution and is fairly common in certain unicellular eukaryotes. Notwithstanding, the prevalence and importance of HGT in the evolution of multicellular eukaryotes remain unclear."[36]

Due to the increasing amount of evidence suggesting the importance of these phenomena for evolution (encounter beneath) molecular biologists such as Peter Gogarten take described horizontal gene transfer every bit "A New Paradigm for Biology".[37]

Mechanisms [edit]

There are several mechanisms for horizontal gene transfer:[5] [38] [39]

  • Transformation, the genetic amending of a cell resulting from the introduction, uptake and expression of foreign genetic material (DNA or RNA).[40] This process is relatively common in bacteria, but less so in eukaryotes.[41] Transformation is often used in laboratories to insert novel genes into bacteria for experiments or for industrial or medical applications. Come across also molecular biology and biotechnology.
  • Transduction, the process in which bacterial Dna is moved from ane bacterium to some other by a virus (a bacteriophage, or phage).[40]
  • Bacterial conjugation, a process that involves the transfer of DNA via a plasmid from a donor cell to a recombinant recipient cell during cell-to-cell contact.[40]
  • Factor transfer agents, virus-like elements encoded past the host that are found in the alphaproteobacteria social club Rhodobacterales.[42]

Horizontal transposon transfer [edit]

A transposable element (TE) (also called a transposon or jumping gene) is a mobile segment of Dna that tin can sometimes pick upwardly a resistance factor and insert it into a plasmid or chromosome, thereby inducing horizontal factor transfer of antibiotic resistance.[40]

Horizontal transposon transfer (HTT) refers to the passage of pieces of Dna that are characterized past their ability to move from 1 locus to another between genomes by ways other than parent-to-offspring inheritance. Horizontal gene transfer has long been idea to exist crucial to prokaryotic evolution, merely in that location is a growing amount of data showing that HTT is a common and widespread phenomenon in eukaryote development as well.[43] On the transposable element side, spreading betwixt genomes via horizontal transfer may be viewed as a strategy to escape purging due to purifying selection, mutational disuse and/or host defense mechanisms.[44]

HTT tin occur with any type of transposable elements, just DNA transposons and LTR retroelements are more likely to exist capable of HTT because both have a stable, double-stranded DNA intermediate that is thought to be sturdier than the single-stranded RNA intermediate of non-LTR retroelements, which can exist highly degradable.[43] Non-autonomous elements may be less likely to transfer horizontally compared to autonomous elements considering they practice not encode the proteins required for their own mobilization. The structure of these non-autonomous elements generally consists of an intronless gene encoding a transposase poly peptide, and may or may non have a promoter sequence. Those that do not accept promoter sequences encoded within the mobile region rely on next host promoters for expression.[43] Horizontal transfer is idea to play an of import office in the TE life bike.[43]

HTT has been shown to occur betwixt species and across continents in both plants[45] and animals (Ivancevic et al. 2013), though some TEs have been shown to more than successfully colonize the genomes of certain species over others.[46] Both spatial and taxonomic proximity of species has been proposed to favor HTTs in plants and animals.[45] Information technology is unknown how the density of a population may affect the rate of HTT events within a population, but close proximity due to parasitism and cross contamination due to crowding accept been proposed to favor HTT in both plants and animals.[45] Successful transfer of a transposable chemical element requires delivery of DNA from donor to host prison cell (and to the germ line for multi-cellular organisms), followed by integration into the recipient host genome.[43] Though the actual mechanism for the transportation of TEs from donor cells to host cells is unknown, it is established that naked DNA and RNA can broadcast in bodily fluid.[43] Many proposed vectors include arthropods, viruses, freshwater snails (Ivancevic et al. 2013), endosymbiotic bacteria,[44] and intracellular parasitic bacteria.[43] In some cases, fifty-fifty TEs facilitate transport for other TEs.[46]

The arrival of a new TE in a host genome can have detrimental consequences because TE mobility may induce mutation. However, HTT tin also be beneficial past introducing new genetic material into a genome and promoting the shuffling of genes and TE domains among hosts, which can be co-opted past the host genome to perform new functions.[46] Moreover, transposition activity increases the TE re-create number and generates chromosomal rearrangement hotspots.[47] HTT detection is a difficult task because it is an ongoing miracle that is constantly changing in frequency of occurrence and composition of TEs inside host genomes. Furthermore, few species have been analyzed for HTT, making it difficult to plant patterns of HTT events between species. These problems tin pb to the underestimation or overestimation of HTT events between ancestral and current eukaryotic species.[47]

Methods of detection [edit]

A speciation event produces orthologs of a gene in the ii daughter species. A horizontal gene transfer event from one species to some other adds a xenolog of the gene to the receiving genome.

Horizontal gene transfer is typically inferred using bioinformatics methods, either past identifying atypical sequence signatures ("parametric" methods) or by identifying strong discrepancies between the evolutionary history of particular sequences compared to that of their hosts. The transferred gene (xenolog) plant in the receiving species is more closely related to the genes of the donor species than would exist expected.

Viruses [edit]

The virus called Mimivirus infects amoebae. Another virus, called Sputnik, also infects amoebae, but information technology cannot reproduce unless mimivirus has already infected the aforementioned cell.[48] "Sputnik's genome reveals further insight into its biological science. Although 13 of its genes show piffling similarity to whatsoever other known genes, three are closely related to mimivirus and mamavirus genes, perhaps cannibalized by the tiny virus every bit it packaged upward particles quondam in its history. This suggests that the satellite virus could perform horizontal cistron transfer between viruses, paralleling the way that bacteriophages ferry genes between bacteria."[49] Horizontal transfer is likewise seen betwixt geminiviruses and tobacco plants.[l]

Prokaryotes [edit]

Horizontal gene transfer is mutual among bacteria, even among very distantly related ones. This process is thought to exist a meaning cause of increased drug resistance[five] [51] when ane bacterial cell acquires resistance, and the resistance genes are transferred to other species.[52] [53] Transposition and horizontal cistron transfer, along with strong natural selective forces accept led to multi-drug resistant strains of Southward. aureus and many other pathogenic leaner.[forty] Horizontal factor transfer also plays a role in the spread of virulence factors, such as exotoxins and exoenzymes, amongst bacteria.[5] A prime example concerning the spread of exotoxins is the adaptive evolution of Shiga toxins in East. coli through horizontal gene transfer via transduction with Shigella species of bacteria.[54] Strategies to gainsay sure bacterial infections by targeting these specific virulence factors and mobile genetic elements take been proposed.[12] For example, horizontally transferred genetic elements play important roles in the virulence of East. coli, Salmonella, Streptococcus and Clostridium perfringens.[v]

In prokaryotes, restriction-modification systems are known to provide immunity against horizontal cistron transfer and in stabilizing mobile genetic elements. Genes encoding restriction modification systems have been reported to move between prokaryotic genomes within mobile genetic elements (MGE) such equally plasmids, prophages, insertion sequences/transposons, integrative conjugative elements (Water ice),[55] and integrons. Still, they are more ofttimes a chromosomal-encoded barrier to MGE than an MGE-encoded tool for cell infection.[56]

Lateral cistron transfer via a mobile genetic element, namely the integrated conjugative element (Water ice) Bs1 has been reported for its role in the global Deoxyribonucleic acid damage SOS response of the gram positive Bacillus subtilis.[57] Furthermore, it has been linked with the radiations and desiccation resistance of Bacillus pumilus SAFR-032 spores,[58] isolated from spacecraft cleanroom facilities.[59] [lx] [61]

Transposon insertion elements have been reported to increase the fettle of gram-negative E. coli strains through either major transpositions or genome rearrangements, and increasing mutation rates.[62] [63] In a study on the effects of long-term exposure of faux microgravity on not-pathogenic Eastward. coli, the results showed transposon insertions occur at loci, linked to SOS stress response.[64] When the same E. coli strain was exposed to a combination of simulated microgravity and trace (groundwork) levels of (the broad spectrum) antibiotic (chloramphenicol), the results showed transposon-mediated rearrangements (TMRs), disrupting genes involved in bacterial adhesion, and deleting an entire segment of several genes involved with motion and chemotaxis.[65] Both these studies take implications for microbial growth, adaptation to and antibiotic resistance in existent time space conditions.

Bacterial transformation [edit]

1: Donor leaner ii: Bacteria who volition receive the gene 3: The red portion represents the gene that will be transferred. Transformation in leaner happens in a certain environment.

Natural transformation is a bacterial adaptation for Deoxyribonucleic acid transfer (HGT) that depends on the expression of numerous bacterial genes whose products are responsible for this process.[66] [67] In general, transformation is a circuitous, energy-requiring developmental process. In social club for a bacterium to bind, take up and recombine exogenous DNA into its chromosome, it must become competent, that is, enter a special physiological state. Competence development in Bacillus subtilis requires expression of well-nigh forty genes.[68] The DNA integrated into the host chromosome is commonly (but with infrequent exceptions) derived from another bacterium of the aforementioned species, and is thus homologous to the resident chromosome. The chapters for natural transformation occurs in at least 67 prokaryotic species.[67] Competence for transformation is typically induced by loftier prison cell density and/or nutritional limitation, conditions associated with the stationary phase of bacterial growth. Competence appears to exist an adaptation for Deoxyribonucleic acid repair.[69] Transformation in bacteria can be viewed every bit a archaic sexual process, since it involves interaction of homologous DNA from two individuals to class recombinant Dna that is passed on to succeeding generations. Although transduction is the class of HGT nigh normally associated with bacteriophages, certain phages may also be able to promote transformation.[70]

Bacterial conjugation [edit]

1: Donor leaner jail cell (F+ jail cell) 2: Leaner that receives the plasmid (F- prison cell) 3: Plasmid that will be moved to the other bacteria four: Pilus. Conjugation in bacteria using a sex pilus; and then the bacteria that received the plasmid can get give it to other bacteria besides.

Conjugation in Mycobacterium smegmatis, like conjugation in Eastward. coli, requires stable and extended contact between a donor and a recipient strain, is DNase resistant, and the transferred Dna is incorporated into the recipient chromosome by homologous recombination. However, unlike E. coli loftier frequency of recombination conjugation (Hfr), mycobacterial conjugation is a type of HGT that is chromosome rather than plasmid based.[71] Furthermore, in dissimilarity to East. coli (Hfr) conjugation, in M. smegmatis all regions of the chromosome are transferred with comparable efficiencies. Substantial blending of the parental genomes was plant as a event of conjugation, and this blending was regarded as reminiscent of that seen in the meiotic products of sexual reproduction.[71] [72]

Archaeal DNA transfer [edit]

The archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus, when UV irradiated, strongly induces the formation of blazon IV pili which then facilitates cellular assemblage.[73] [74] Exposure to chemical agents that cause DNA impairment also induces cellular aggregation.[73] Other physical stressors, such as temperature shift or pH, do not induce aggregation, suggesting that Dna damage is a specific inducer of cellular assemblage.

UV-induced cellular aggregation mediates intercellular chromosomal HGT marker exchange with high frequency,[75] and UV-induced cultures display recombination rates that exceed those of uninduced cultures past every bit much as iii orders of magnitude. S. solfataricus cells aggregate preferentially with other cells of their own species.[75] Frols et al.[73] [76] and Ajon et al.[75] suggested that UV-inducible Dna transfer is likely an important machinery for providing increased repair of damaged DNA via homologous recombination. This process can exist regarded as a uncomplicated form of sexual interaction.

Another thermophilic species, Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, is able to undergo HGT. South. acidocaldarius tin can exchange and recombine chromosomal markers at temperatures up to 84 °C.[77] UV exposure induces pili formation and cellular aggregation.[75] Cells with the power to amass have greater survival than mutants lacking pili that are unable to aggregate. The frequency of recombination is increased past Deoxyribonucleic acid impairment induced by UV-irradiation[78] and by DNA damaging chemicals.[79]

The ups operon, containing five genes, is highly induced past UV irradiation. The proteins encoded past the ups operon are employed in UV-induced pili associates and cellular aggregation leading to intercellular DNA substitution and homologous recombination.[80] Since this system increases the fitness of S. acidocaldarius cells later on UV exposure, Wolferen et al.[80] [81] considered that transfer of Deoxyribonucleic acid likely takes place in order to repair UV-induced Dna damages by homologous recombination.

Eukaryotes [edit]

"Sequence comparisons propose recent horizontal transfer of many genes among diverse species including across the boundaries of phylogenetic 'domains'. Thus determining the phylogenetic history of a species can not exist done conclusively past determining evolutionary copse for single genes."[82]

Organelle to nuclear genome [edit]

  • Assay of Deoxyribonucleic acid sequences suggests that horizontal gene transfer has occurred within eukaryotes from the chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes to the nuclear genome. As stated in the endosymbiotic theory, chloroplasts and mitochondria probably originated every bit bacterial endosymbionts of a progenitor to the eukaryotic cell.[83]

Organelle to organelle [edit]

  • Mitochondrial genes moved to parasites of the Rafflesiaceae establish family from their hosts[84] [85] and from chloroplasts of a notwithstanding-unidentified plant to the mitochondria of the edible bean Phaseolus.[86]

Viruses to plants [edit]

  • Plants are capable of receiving genetic information from viruses past horizontal gene transfer.[50]

Bacteria to fungi [edit]

  • Horizontal transfer occurs from bacteria to some fungi, such equally the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.[87]

Bacteria to plants [edit]

  • Agrobacterium, a pathogenic bacterium that causes cells to proliferate as crown galls and proliferating roots is an example of a bacterium that can transfer genes to plants and this plays an important function in found evolution.[88]

Leaner to insects [edit]

  • HhMAN1 is a gene in the genome of the coffee drupe borer (Hypothenemus hampei) that resembles bacterial genes, and is idea to be transferred from bacteria in the protrude'due south gut.[89] [90]
  • oskar is an essential cistron for the specification of the germline in Holometabola and its origin is through to be due to a HGT issue followed by a fusion with a LOTUS domain.[91]

Bacteria to animals [edit]

  • Bdelloid rotifers currently hold the 'record' for HGT in animals with ~viii% of their genes from bacterial origins.[92] Tardigrades were thought to intermission the tape with 17.5% HGT, merely that finding was an artifact of bacterial contamination.[93]
  • A study establish the genomes of forty animals (including ten primates, four Caenorhabditis worms, and 12 Drosophila insects) independent genes which the researchers concluded had been transferred from bacteria and fungi by horizontal cistron transfer.[94] The researchers estimated that for some nematodes and Drosophila insects these genes had been acquired relatively recently.[95]
  • A bacteriophage-mediated machinery transfers genes between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Nuclear localization signals in bacteriophage terminal proteins (TP) prime Deoxyribonucleic acid replication and become covalently linked to the viral genome. The role of virus and bacteriophages in HGT in bacteria, suggests that TP-containing genomes could be a vehicle of inter-kingdom genetic information transference all throughout evolution.[96]

Endosymbiont to insects and nematodes [edit]

  • The adzuki bean beetle has acquired genetic material from its (non-beneficial) endosymbiont Wolbachia.[97] New examples take recently been reported demonstrating that Wolbachia bacteria represent an important potential source of genetic material in arthropods and filarial nematodes.[98]

Found to found [edit]

  • Striga hermonthica, a parasitic eudicot, has received a cistron from sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) to its nuclear genome.[99] The factor'southward functionality is unknown.
  • A gene that immune ferns to survive in dark forests came from the hornwort, which grows in mats on streambanks or trees. The neochrome gene arrived about 180 meg years agone.[100]

Plants to animals [edit]

  • The eastern emerald sea slug Elysia chlorotica has been suggested by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis to contain photosynthesis-supporting genes obtained from an algae (Vaucheria litorea) in their nutrition.[101] LGT in Sacoglossa is at present thought to exist an antiquity[102] and no trace of LGT was found upon sequencing the genome of Elysia chlorotica.[103]
  • The whitefly Bemisia tabaci acquired a plant detoxification gene that neutralizes plant toxins.[104]

Establish to fungus [edit]

  • Gene transfer between plants and fungi has been posited for a number of cases, including rice (Oryza sativa).

Fungi to insects [edit]

  • Pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) contain multiple genes from fungi.[105] [106] Plants, fungi, and microorganisms tin can synthesize carotenoids, only torulene made past pea aphids is the just carotenoid known to be synthesized by an organism in the animal kingdom.[105]

Animals to animals [edit]

  • Smelt fish received antifreeze poly peptide (AFP) gene from herring through a direct horizontal transfer.[107]

Man to protozoan [edit]

  • The malaria pathogen Plasmodium vivax acquired genetic material from humans that might assist facilitate its long stay in the body.[108]

Human genome [edit]

  • Ane study identified approximately 100 of humans' approximately 20,000 full genes which likely resulted from horizontal cistron transfer,[109] merely this number has been challenged past several researchers arguing these candidate genes for HGT are more probable the result of factor loss combined with differences in the rate of development.[110]

Artificial horizontal gene transfer [edit]

Earlier it is transformed, a bacterium is susceptible to antibiotics. A plasmid tin can be inserted when the leaner is under stress, and be incorporated into the bacterial DNA creating antibiotic resistance. When the plasmids are prepared they are inserted into the bacterial cell past either making pores in the plasma membrane with temperature extremes and chemical treatments, or making it semi permeable through the process of electrophoresis, in which electric currents create the holes in the membrane. Afterwards conditions return to normal the holes in the membrane close and the plasmids are trapped inside the bacteria where they get part of the genetic material and their genes are expressed by the bacteria.

Genetic engineering is essentially horizontal gene transfer, admitting with synthetic expression cassettes. The Sleeping Beauty transposon system[111] (SB) was developed as a synthetic gene transfer amanuensis that was based on the known abilities of Tc1/mariner transposons to invade genomes of extremely diverse species.[112] The SB organisation has been used to introduce genetic sequences into a wide variety of beast genomes.[113] [114]

Importance in evolution [edit]

Horizontal gene transfer is a potential confounding factor in inferring phylogenetic trees based on the sequence of one gene.[115] For example, given two distantly related bacteria that take exchanged a factor a phylogenetic tree including those species volition bear witness them to be closely related because that gene is the aforementioned even though well-nigh other genes are dissimilar. For this reason, it is oftentimes platonic to use other information to infer robust phylogenies such as the presence or absenteeism of genes or, more ordinarily, to include as wide a range of genes for phylogenetic analysis every bit possible.

For example, the about common gene to exist used for amalgam phylogenetic relationships in prokaryotes is the 16S ribosomal RNA gene since its sequences tend to exist conserved among members with close phylogenetic distances, but variable enough that differences can be measured. Still, in recent years it has too been argued that 16s rRNA genes can also be horizontally transferred. Although this may be infrequent, the validity of 16s rRNA-constructed phylogenetic trees must exist reevaluated.[116]

Biologist Johann Peter Gogarten suggests "the original metaphor of a tree no longer fits the information from recent genome research" therefore "biologists should utilise the metaphor of a mosaic to describe the dissimilar histories combined in private genomes and use the metaphor of a net to visualize the rich exchange and cooperative effects of HGT among microbes".[37] There exist several methods to infer such phylogenetic networks.

Using single genes every bit phylogenetic markers, it is difficult to trace organismal phylogeny in the presence of horizontal cistron transfer. Combining the simple coalescence model of cladogenesis with rare HGT horizontal gene transfer events advise there was no single most recent mutual ancestor that contained all of the genes ancestral to those shared among the iii domains of life. Each gimmicky molecule has its ain history and traces back to an private molecule cenancestor. However, these molecular ancestors were likely to exist present in unlike organisms at different times."[117]

Claiming to the tree of life [edit]

Horizontal gene transfer poses a possible claiming to the concept of the final universal mutual antecedent (LUCA) at the root of the tree of life first formulated past Carl Woese, which led him to propose the Archaea as a third domain of life.[118] Indeed, it was while examining the new iii-domain view of life that horizontal gene transfer arose equally a complicating upshot: Archaeoglobus fulgidus was seen as an anomaly with respect to a phylogenetic tree based upon the encoding for the enzyme HMGCoA reductase—the organism in question is a definite Archaean, with all the cell lipids and transcription machinery that are expected of an Archaean, but whose HMGCoA genes are of bacterial origin.[118] Scientists are broadly agreed on symbiogenesis, that mitochondria in eukaryotes derived from alpha-proteobacterial cells and that chloroplasts came from ingested blue-green alga, and other cistron transfers may take afflicted early eukaryotes. (In dissimilarity, multicellular eukaryotes have mechanisms to foreclose horizontal gene transfer, including separated germ cells.) If there had been continued and extensive cistron transfer, there would be a complex network with many ancestors, instead of a tree of life with sharply delineated lineages leading back to a LUCA.[118] [119] Nonetheless, a LUCA can exist identified, so horizontal transfers must have been relatively limited.[120]

Phylogenetic information in HGT [edit]

It has been remarked that, despite the complications, the detection of horizontal gene transfers brings valuable phylogenetic and dating information.[121]

The potential of HGT to be used for dating phylogenies has recently been confirmed.[122] [123]

The chromosomal organization of horizontal factor transfer [edit]

The acquisition of new genes has the potential to disorganize the other genetic elements and hinder the function of the bacterial jail cell, thus affecting the competitiveness of leaner. Consequently, bacterial adaptation lies in a conflict between the advantages of acquiring benign genes, and the need to maintain the organization of the balance of its genome. Horizontally transferred genes are typically concentrated in only ~ane% of the chromosome (in regions called hotspots). This concentration increases with genome size and with the charge per unit of transfer. Hotspots diversify by rapid gene turnover; their chromosomal distribution depends on local contexts (neighboring core genes), and content in mobile genetic elements. Hotspots concentrate most changes in cistron repertoires, reduce the trade-off between genome diversification and system, and should be treasure troves of strain-specific adaptive genes. Most mobile genetic elements and antibody resistance genes are in hotspots, simply many hotspots lack recognizable mobile genetic elements and exhibit frequent homologous recombination at flanking cadre genes. Overrepresentation of hotspots with fewer mobile genetic elements in naturally transformable leaner suggests that homologous recombination and horizontal cistron transfer are tightly linked in genome development.[124]

Genes [edit]

At that place is evidence for historical horizontal transfer of the following genes:

  • Lycopene cyclase for carotenoid biosynthesis, between Chlorobi and Blue-green alga.[125]
  • TetO gene conferring resistance to tetracycline, between Campylobacter jejuni.[126]
  • Neochrome, a gene in some ferns that enhances their ability to survive in dim calorie-free. Believed to have been acquired from algae former during the Cretaceous.[127] [128]
  • Transfer of a cysteine synthase from a bacterium into phytophagous mites and Lepidoptera assuasive the detoxification of cyanogenic glucosides produced by host plants.[129]
  • The LINE1 sequence has transferred from humans to the gonorrhea bacteria.[130]

See likewise [edit]

  • Agrobacterium, a bacterium well known for its ability to transfer DNA between itself and plants.
  • Endogenous retrovirus
  • Genetically modified organism
  • Inferring horizontal gene transfer
  • Integron
  • Mobile genetic elements
  • Phylogenetic network
  • Phylogenetic tree
  • Provirus
  • Reassortment
  • Retrotransposon
  • Symbiogenesis
  • Tree of life (biology)
  • Xenobiology

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Further reading [edit]

  • Gyles C, Boerlin P (March 2014). "Horizontally transferred genetic elements and their part in pathogenesis of bacterial disease". Veterinarian Pathology. 51 (2): 328–forty. doi:10.1177/0300985813511131. PMID 24318976. S2CID 206510894.
  • – Papers by Dr Michael Syvanen on Horizontal Cistron Transfer
  • Salzberg SL, White O, Peterson J, Eisen JA (June 2001). "Microbial genes in the man genome: lateral transfer or cistron loss?" (PDF). Science. 292 (5523): 1903–6. Bibcode:2001Sci...292.1903S. doi:x.1126/science.1061036. PMID 11358996. S2CID 17016011. About 40 genes were found to exist exclusively shared by humans and bacteria and are candidate examples of horizontal transfer from leaner to vertebrates. Cistron loss combined with sample size effects and evolutionary rate variation provide an alternative, more biologically plausible caption
  • Qi Z, Cui Y, Fang West, Ling L, Chen R (January 2004). "Autosomal similarity revealed past eukaryotic genomic comparison". Journal of Biological Physics. xxx (4): 305–12. doi:ten.1007/s10867-004-0996-0. PMC3456315. PMID 23345874.
  • Woese CR (June 2002). "On the evolution of cells". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (13): 8742–7. Bibcode:2002PNAS...99.8742W. doi:10.1073/pnas.132266999. PMC124369. PMID 12077305. This article seeks to shift the emphasis in early phylogenic accommodation from vertical to horizontal gene transfer. He uses the term "Darwinian Threshold" for the time of major transition of evolutionary mechanisms from mostly horizontal to generally vertical transfer, and the "origin of speciation".
  • Snel B, Bork P, Huynen MA (Jan 1999). "Genome phylogeny based on gene content". Nature Genetics. 21 (one): 108–10. doi:ten.1038/5052. PMID 9916801. S2CID 10296406. This commodity proposes using the presence or absence of a set of genes to infer phylogenies, in order to avert misreckoning factors such equally horizontal factor transfer.
  • "Webfocus in Nature with gratis review articles". Archived from the original on 2005-11-02.
  • Patil Pb, Sonti RV (October 2004). "Variation suggestive of horizontal gene transfer at a lipopolysaccharide (lps) biosynthetic locus in Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae, the bacterial leaf blight pathogen of rice". BMC Microbiology. 4 (1): 40. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-4-40. PMC524487. PMID 15473911.
  • Jin One thousand, Nakhleh L, Snir Due south, Tuller T (November 2006). "Maximum likelihood of phylogenetic networks". Bioinformatics. 22 (21): 2604–11. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btl452. PMID 16928736.
  • Jain R, Rivera MC, Lake JA (March 1999). "Horizontal gene transfer among genomes: the complexity hypothesis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 96 (seven): 3801–6. Bibcode:1999PNAS...96.3801J. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.7.3801. PMC22375. PMID 10097118.
  • Ochman H, Lawrence JG, Groisman EA (May 2000). "Lateral cistron transfer and the nature of bacterial innovation". Nature. 405 (6784): 299–304. Bibcode:2000Natur.405..299O. doi:ten.1038/35012500. PMID 10830951. S2CID 85739173.
  • Preston R (July 12, 1999). "The Demon in the Freezer". The New Yorker. pp. 44–61. Smallpox knows how to brand a mouse protein. How did smallpox larn that? 'The poxviruses are promiscuous at capturing genes from their hosts,' Esposito said. 'Information technology tells you that smallpox was once inside a mouse or some other small rodent.'
  • Szpirer C, Elevation E, Couturier M, Mergeay Chiliad (December 1999). "Retrotransfer or gene capture: a characteristic of conjugative plasmids, with ecological and evolutionary significance". Microbiology. 145 ( Pt 12) (Pt 12): 3321–3329. doi:x.1099/00221287-145-12-3321. PMID 10627031.
  • "Tin transgenes from genetically modified plants be absorbed by micro-organisms and spread in this way?". GMO Safe: Results of research into horizontal gene transfer. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21.
  • Whitaker JW, McConkey GA, Westhead DR (2009). "The transferome of metabolic genes explored: analysis of the horizontal transfer of enzyme encoding genes in unicellular eukaryotes". Genome Biological science. x (4): R36. doi:10.1186/gb-2009-10-four-r36. PMC2688927. PMID 19368726.

External links [edit]

  • Citizendium:Horizontal gene transfer
  • Citizendium:Horizontal gene transfer in prokaryotes
  • Citizendium:Horizontal cistron transfer in plants
  • Citizendium:Horizontal factor transfer (History)

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer

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